A Single Belief-Changing Psychedelic Experience Is Associated With Increased Attribution of Consciousness to Living and Non-living Entities

This survey (n=1606) addressed whether psychedelics change the attribution of consciousness to a range of living and non-living entities, with participants rating their attributions of consciousness before and after their psychedelic experience. There were large increases in the attribution of consciousness to various entities including non-human primates (63–83%), quadrupeds (59–79%), insects (33–57%), fungi (21–56%), plants (26–61%), inanimate natural objects (8–26%), and inanimate manmade objects (3–15%). Higher ratings of mystical experience were associated with greater increases in the attribution of consciousness.

Abstract

“Introduction: Although the topic of consciousness is both mysterious and controversial, psychedelic drugs are popularly believed to provide unique insights into the nature of consciousness despite a lack of empirical evidence.

Methods: This study addresses the question of whether psychedelics change the attribution of consciousness to a range of living and non-living entities. A survey was conducted in 1,606 respondents who endorsed a belief changing psychedelic experience.

Results: Participants rated their attributions of consciousness to a range of living and non-living entities before and after their psychedelic experience. Superstitious beliefs and belief in free will were also assessed. From before the experience to after, there were large increases in the attribution of consciousness to various entities including non-human primates (63–83%), quadrupeds (59–79%), insects (33–57%), fungi (21–56%), plants (26–61%), inanimate natural objects (8–26%), and inanimate manmade objects (3–15%). Higher ratings of mystical experience were associated with greater increases in the attribution of consciousness. Moreover, the increased attributions of consciousness did not decrease in those who completed the survey years after the psychedelic experience. In contrast to attributions of consciousness, beliefs in free will and superstitions did not change. Notably, all findings were similar when restricted to individuals reporting on their first psychedelic experience.

Discussion: This study demonstrates that, among people who reported belief-changing psychedelic experiences, attribution of consciousness to various entities increases. Future prospective psychedelic drug administration studies that control for expectancies are needed.”

Authors: Sandeep M. Nayak & Roland R. Griffiths

Notes

Psychedelics are poised to be the next big thing in psychiatry. These psychoactive substances are showing great promise in alleviating the symptoms of mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety and PTSD, to name a few. In addition to their direct therapeutic potential, these substances may offer unique insights into the mysterious nature of consciousness given the profound effects they elicit once consumed. Studies have shown that the subjective nature of psychedelic experiences can elicit belief changes which could, in turn, shape beliefs about consciousness. However, empirical data on the relationship between psychedelics and consciousness is lacking.

The present survey study (n=1,606) from researchers at Johns Hopkins sought to explore whether psychedelics change the attribution of consciousness to a range of living and non-living entities. Participants answered questions based on a single experience with one of several classic psychedelic substances (e.g., psilocybin, LSD, ayahuasca, mescaline). To assess participants’ beliefs in the capacity of conscious awareness of various living and non-living entities, a series of 9 items were devised and completed as part of the survey. Additionally, participants completed the 30-item Mystical Experience Questionaire (MEQ) as well as questions relating to their belief in free will and their superstitious beliefs.

The Psychedelic Experience & Consciousness:

• Large increases in the attribution of consciousness to various entities including non-human primates (63–83%), quadrupeds (59–79%), insects (33–57%), fungi (21–56%), plants (26–61%), inanimate natural objects (8–26%), and inanimate manmade objects (3–15%) were observed.
• Higher ratings of mystical experience (MEQ) were associated with greater increases in the attribution of consciousness.
• There were no meaningful changes in ratings of agreement with the five superstitious beliefs items or the belief in freewill item.
• The increase in the attribution of consciousness are of large magnitude, occur soon after the experience, and are enduring, being unchanged a mean of eight years after the experience.

While much remains a mystery, this study shows that a single psychedelic experience can lead to increases in attributions of consciousness that can last for years. Given the retrospective nature of the study, studies that include psychedelic administration and controls are needed to provide further insight into the relationship psychedelics have with consciousness.

Summary

INTRODUCTION

The definition of consciousness and the problem of other minds have been debated by scientists and philosophers for centuries, but few studies have addressed the causes of mind perception.

Psychedelic substances produce unusual and compelling changes in conscious experience, and may provide unique insights into the nature of consciousness itself. It is unclear why psychedelics are closely linked to ideas about consciousness, but it is possible that something about the subjective experiences of psychedelics themselves shape beliefs about consciousness.

Procedure

In this study, individuals who endorsed having a belief-changing psychedelic experience responded to questions based on a single experience with one several classic psychedelic substances.

Participant Recruitment

Participants were recruited from social media, relevant websites, and email invitations to complete an anonymous internet survey. The survey described vague belief changes and was approved by the Institutional Review Board.

Details of the Psychedelic Belief-Changing Experience

Participants were asked to answer questions based on a single reference psychedelic experience, and were asked about the psychedelic they took, the dose, and whether they took any other drugs.

Retrospective Ratings of Qualities of the Experience at the Time of the Experience

Participants were asked to complete a 30-item questionnaire to assess their mystical experience during the reference psychedelic experience. The total score was expressed as a percentage of maximum possible score.

Psychologically Challenging Experiences

Participants were asked to rate the most psychologically challenging portions of their psychedelic experience on an 8-point scale. This measure was used to examine the specificity of the effects of MEQ.

In previous surveys and laboratory studies with psychedelics, participants rated the degree of personal meaning and psychological insight they attributed to the reference experience.

Ratings of Beliefs Before and After the Experience

Participants rated items assessing possible changes in beliefs or worldview attributed to their reference psychedelic experience at three time points: “Before”, “After”, and “Now”.

Belief in the Capacity of Conscious Awareness of Various Living and Non-living Entities

A series of 9 items was used to assess beliefs in the capacity various living and non-living entities to have conscious experience.

Superstitious Beliefs

Five items from the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale were used to assess superstitious beliefs, including the belief that black cats can bring bad luck.

Statistical Analysis

All analyses were performed in R version 4.0.2 (R Core Team, 2021) and paired t-tests and Cohen’s d were used to assess differences in belief agreement ratings between successive timepoints. McNemar’s tests were conducted to analyze differences in the proportion of participants endorsing some agreement between successive timepoints.

The effect of mystical-type experience (MEQ scores) on belief changes was examined by comparing belief agreement ratings between timepoints Before and After, and between low and high MEQ groups at timepoint “After”.

To examine the effect of a mystical-type experience on belief agreement, linear mixed models were used with MEQ and Time (Before and After) as factors. Statistical significance was calculated using the ANOVA function of the R package car.

Survey Completion

Respondents were recruited from August 2020 to January 2021. Of the 4,997 individuals who indicated consent to participate, 1,606 responded to the survey, and 113 responses were removed for appearing to refer to multiple psychedelic experiences.

Respondent Characteristics

The final participant population was predominately white, male, and from the United States, with a mean age of 35.1 years. They reported a mean of 20.9 lifetime uses of psychedelics.

Qualities of the Psychedelic Experience

About 70% of participants rated their experience as being among the five most personally meaningful and psychologically insightful experiences of their lives.

Changes in Attribution of Consciousness

The effects of the psychedelic experience on belief in the capacity for conscious awareness were not affected by whether the psychedelic experience occurred in the past year or whether it was the participant’s first psychedelic experience.

Higher scores on the Mystical Experience Questionnaire were associated with greater increases in the attribution of consciousness.

Changes in Superstitious Beliefs and Freewill

The five superstitious beliefs items and the belief in freewill did not change with the mystical experience questionnaire.

DISCUSSION

This survey suggests that a single psychedelic experience increases beliefs that living and non-living entities have the capacity for conscious awareness, but does not change beliefs regarding superstitions or freewill.

A sense of external unity coupled with a noetic quality is a hallmark feature of the mystical experience and is related to increased attribution of consciousness.

Researchers found that people who take psychedelics or other drugs report encountering “entity beings” that are “conscious” (i.e., self-aware) and may be related to the experience of “entity encounters”.

From an evolutionary perspective, attribution of consciousness to entities without brains is self-evident survival value, and may be partially underpinned by innate cognitive biases. However, psychedelic mediated neuroplasticity may facilitate this unlearning.

The study’s retrospective design and limitation to participants who endorsed a belief change suggest that the observed changes in attribution of consciousness are not just an artifact of implicit demand characteristics of the survey.

People who reported belief-changing psychedelic experiences attributed more consciousness to various entities, which is plausibly related to the widely held belief that psychedelics may provide unique insights into the nature of consciousness.