Key Insights

• Psychedelics may increase creative thinking by disrupting the Default Mode Network (DMN), enhancing cognitive flexibility and openness to new ideas.
• Flexible, divergent thinking, fostered by psychedelics, can help treat mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression, according to research on these substances’ potential therapeutic effects.
• More research is needed to understand the long-term effects of psychedelics on creativity, with implications for both therapeutic and recreational uses.

Author: Dilara Oexemann. Dilara holds a master’s degree in clinical psychology and wrote her thesis on the effect of personality traits on the relationship between dose, psychedelic-induced emotional breakthroughs and positive psychedelic effects. In her research, she aims to understand how individual differences shape psychedelic experiences, aiming to contribute to the safe and effective use of psychedelics to transform mental health treatment and enhance personal growth.

Introduction

Creativity is a complex cognitive process essential in personal development and problem-solving. Psychedelics have been shown to affect creativity by altering brain function, which can be tested using different creativity assessments. This topic page explores how psychedelics influence creative thinking and their potential applications in clinical practice. Due to the subjectivity of creativity, we further discuss how scientific findings can be translated into the real world.

Defining Creativity

While creativity might seem easy to recognize, defining it is more challenging. The difficulty arises because creativity appears in many different forms, from art to science, making it hard to capture in a single definition. The concept of creativity encompasses varied forms and complex psychological roots, leading to confusion and a lack of consensus in its definition (Parkhurst, 1999). Creativity is often understood as the ability to generate novel and valuable ideas, solutions, or expressions (Schubert, 2021).

The creative process involves two key cognitive styles: divergent and convergent thinking (Drago & Heilman, 2012).

• Divergent thinking emphasises novelty. It allows individuals to break away from established concepts and generate multiple new ideas. It is essential for developing innovative products and solutions that involve out-of-the-box thinking.
• In contrast, convergent thinking focuses on narrowing down these ideas to arrive at a single, well-defined solution. It involves recognizing patterns or similarities in different phenomena and relies on deductive reasoning to reach a definitive answer.

Together, divergent and convergent thinking lay the foundation of creative problem-solving. They balance the exploration of possibilities with the focus needed to find effective solutions.

Types of Creativity

Aligning with convergent and divergent thinking, this topic page sometimes discusses deliberate or spontaneous creativity. Deliberate creativity – similar to convergent thinking – is focused and intentional, aimed at solving specific problems. It involves planning and logical thinking. Spontaneous creativity – similar to divergent thinking – arises naturally, often through mind-wandering, offering unexpected insights (Xie et al., 2021). Both types work together during creative processes, with deliberate thinking providing structure and spontaneous thinking sparking fresh ideas. 

Creativity and Personality 

The relationship between creativity and personality is complex and deeply intertwined. Within the framework of the Big Five personality model – commonly known as OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) – the trait of openness stands out as a critical predictor of creative potential. Research shows that individuals with high openness are more inclined to explore novel ideas and experiences, fostering a rich environment for creative thinking (Raya et al., 2023).

Openness and extraversion are part of the broader personality dimension known as “plasticity.” This dimension encompasses traits linked to cognitive flexibility and social engagement, both of which are crucial for innovative thinking. Those who exhibit high levels of plasticity are more likely to transcend conventional boundaries and embrace ambiguity, ultimately enhancing their creative output (Silvia et al., 2009).

Creativity and Well-Being 

Tan et al. (2021) conducted two studies on the relationship between creativity and well-being. The first one reveals a positive correlation between creativity and subjective well-being among undergraduate students and working adults. This relationship remains significant even after accounting for both groups’ self-perceived stress and demographic factors.

In the second study, the researchers examined this relationship using an experimental design. The creativity priming group participants completed a task designed to enhance creative performance and showed significantly better outcomes than the control group. The findings indicated that priming participants for creativity improved their creative output and increased their subjective well-being, even after accounting for self-perceived stress.

Creativity and IQ 

The relationship between creativity and IQ remains debated. The “threshold hypothesis” suggests that a certain level of intelligence (around an IQ of 120) is needed for high creativity (Jauk et al., 2013). However, personality traits like openness become more important in predicting creativity once this threshold is reached.

Creativity and Psychedelics

Psychedelics, known to enhance openness and disrupt rigid thought patterns, may facilitate more flexible and divergent thinking. Research suggests these substances may help individuals break free from conventional thought patterns, enhancing creativity. However, whether these effects result in lasting changes remains an open question.

Tests to Assess Creativity

Several tests are used to measure different aspects of creativity. The following lists tests relevant to this discussion:

• Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT): Widely used assessments that measure creative thinking through picture- and word-based exercises, evaluating characteristics like fluency, originality, and elaboration (Torrance, n.d.). 
• Alternative Uses Task (AUT): Asks participants to think of as many uses as possible for a simple object (Guilford, 1967).
• Picture Concept Task (PCT): Assesses the ability to find associations between images, measuring convergent and divergent thinking (Zhang, 2022).
• Duncker’s Candle Problem: A classic problem-solving test that measures functional fixedness (Duncker, 1945).

Common experiences linked to creativity, such as dreams and hypnagogic states, often share similarities with psychedelic states. Shifts in perception, mental fluidity, and increased access to spontaneous thought mark both phenomena. Psychedelic drugs, in particular, have been suggested to enhance creativity through mechanisms like brain hyperconnectivity, greater openness to experience, and heightened metacognitive awareness. These altered states may create a mental environment conducive to generating novel ideas and breaking free from conventional thought patterns.

Divergent or spontaneous creativity is often seen as the type of creativity most influenced by psychedelics. Divergent thinking benefits from the cognitive flexibility that psychedelics are thought to promote. For instance, psychedelics are associated with the ability to explore different ideas, perspectives, and solutions, making them a promising tool for creative problem-solving.

Historical Studies and Their Limitations

Creativity was one of the earliest areas of interest in psychedelic research. Before the prohibition of psychedelics in the 1970s, a few studies examined their relationship.

A pioneering study by Harman et al. (1966) was one of the first to examine the effects of psychedelics on creativity in a structured setting. The researchers administered mescaline to professionally employed men in small groups, focusing on creative problem-solving abilities. The study employed careful selection, preparation, and a supportive environment to facilitate creative activity. Results suggested that psychedelics, when administered under these controlled conditions, could enhance creative problem-solving. The researchers also noted that increased creative ability seemed to persist for weeks after the psychedelic session. 

A comprehensive review by Krippner (1985) summarised some early studies.

Berlin et al. (1955) reported that artists painting under the influence of mescaline produced works deemed to have greater aesthetic value. Barron (1963) observed that creative individuals under psilocybin were engaged, though not all found their work inspiring. Janiger’s studies (1959, 1967) suggested that while the imaginative quality of artworks increased, craftsmanship suffered.

Additionally, various studies indicated mixed results: McGlothlin et al. (1967) found no significant changes in creativity among LSD users over time, while Zegans et al. (1967) reported improved word associations. The study by Harman and colleagues (1966), which we just discussed, noted increased productivity among professionals given mescaline, although including methylphenidate (Ritalin) complicates these findings.

Krippner’s surveys revealed that many artists credited psychedelics with enhancing their creative technique and approach, although few created works of art during the experience itself. Overall, the consensus suggests that while psychedelics may not directly lead to immediate creative output, they serve as valuable sources of inspiration for artistic endeavours.

Subjective reports from participants in these studies often highlighted heightened imagination and visual enhancement during psychedelic experiences. However, the research had significant flaws, including small sample sizes, lack of control groups, and inconsistent methodologies. Additionally, confounding variables, such as using multiple psychoactive substances, compromised the results. Overall, while psychedelics appeared to stimulate imaginative thinking, their impact on the technical execution of creative tasks was less clear and possibly diminished. The prohibition of psychedelics halted further research, leaving many questions about their effects on creativity unresolved.

“The Psychedelic Explorer’s Guide” by James Fadiman is a comprehensive book that draws from his extensive experience with psychedelics since the 1960s. The book provides guidelines for the safe and effective use of psychedelics for spiritual, therapeutic, and problem-solving – creative – purposes. It covers personal anecdotes, research findings, and practical advice. While parts of the book take a more spiritual tone, the chapters on creativity studies may provide more insights into this historic research period.

Contemporary Research on Psychedelics and Creativity

Contemporary studies aim to assess creativity both on the microdose and macrodose level. A recent literature review by Bonnieux et al. (2023) investigated psilocybin’s effects on cognition and creativity, focusing on trends in both dosing levels. It found that while macrodosing often impaired creativity during the acute phase, microdoses tended to enhance creative thinking. However, the results are limited by methodological issues, and further research is needed to assess long-term effects.

Microdosing

Anderson et al. (2019) found that microdosing LSD and psilocybin was associated with higher creativity scores. To measure divergent thinking, they assessed creativity using the Unusual Uses Task (part of the TTCT). Components such as cleverness, uncommonness, and remoteness were all positively correlated. Since this research was non-experimental, this relationship does not imply causation between microdosing and enhanced creativity.

Prochazkova et al. (2018) found that both divergent and convergent thinking significantly improved 1.5 hours after microdosing psychedelic truffles during a microdosing event organised by the Dutch Psychedelic Society. Convergent thinking was assessed using the Picture Concept Task (PCT), and divergent thinking using the Alternate Uses Task (AUT). 

A placebo-controlled study by Murphy et al. (2024) investigated the effects of microdosing LSD on creativity in healthy adult men over six weeks. Creativity was measured through different creativity tasks during baseline, after the first dose, and post-regimen. Despite participants feeling more creative on dose days, no significant effects were observed on any creativity measures. The null results suggest that either the tests used may not capture creativity facets influenced by microdosing or that reported creativity boosts may be placebo-driven.

Overall, modern research on microdosing psychedelics has shown mixed effects on creativity. Some studies report improvements in creative thinking, particularly in divergent thinking, while others, such as controlled trials, find no significant impact beyond placebo effects. These inconsistencies highlight the need for further research using well-validated creativity measures and exploring potential long-term effects.

Macrodosing

At the macrodose level, Frecska et al. (2012) studied the effects of ayahuasca on creativity after participants attended a series of ceremonies. They found significant increases in visual creativity on the TTCT, particularly in generating highly original solutions once the acute effects of the substance had worn off. 

Repeated ayahuasca ingestion heightened entoptic activity (visual effects whose source is within the human eye itself), such as phosphenes (floating stars, zigzags, swirls, spirals, squiggles). We understand phosphenes as perceiving light or colours without external light, typically triggered by pressure on the eyes or visual system stimulation. The researchers believed this finding may have influenced creative expression.

In contrast, Kuypers et al. (2016) explored ayahuasca’s effects on creativity during the acute phase of a full psychedelic experience. They observed a decrease in conventional convergent thinking, measured by the PCT, but found an enhancement in creative divergent thinking. However, the study did not detect significant changes in fluency or originality, two key components of divergent thinking. 

Both these studies on ayahuasca’s effect on creativity indicate that while acute use may temporarily alter cognitive styles related to creativity, repeated use in a ritual setting might yield more lasting effects on creative expression, particularly in the visual domain.

Mason et al. (2019) observed significant improvements in divergent creativity (fluency and originality) the day after a high dose of psilocybin during a retreat. However, this effect did not persist at the seven-day follow-up. Interestingly, at the seven-day mark, the study noted an improvement in convergent thinking, measured by the PCT, although it was not as pronounced.

In a randomised controlled trial, Wießner et al. (2022) found that LSD significantly altered creativity by increasing novelty, surprise, originality, and symbolic thinking, while reducing organisation and convergent thinking. LSD-induced shifts in creative cognition appeared to enhance divergent thinking but hindered structured problem-solving. Similarly, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study by Mason et al. (2021) found that psilocybin acutely increased spontaneous creative insights while reducing deliberate task-based creativity, with a rise in novel ideas observed seven days later. 

Concluding, the effects of high doses of psychedelics appear to enhance divergent thinking and creativity, particularly in the domains of novelty, originality, and symbolic thinking. However, these substances can also impair convergent thinking and structured problem-solving during the acute phase. While some studies suggest these effects may persist beyond the immediate experience, more research is needed to understand long-term outcomes and their neural underpinnings better.

Table 1: Acute and Long-Term Effects of Psychedelics on Creativity

Neuroscience

Creative thinking involves a complex interaction between the brain’s memory systems and cognitive control mechanisms. The hippocampus – key to memory processes – plays an essential role in generating new ideas and critically evaluating them. The brain’s default mode network (DMN), active during mind-wandering and imaginative activities, also supports spontaneous, generative thinking. This network connects to the hippocampus, allowing individuals to recall past experiences and imagine future scenarios, both of which are crucial for creative thought (Beaty, 2020).

Research suggests psychedelics enhance creativity by disrupting the normal resting-state connectivity within the DMN, which is typically involved in self-referential thinking and cognitive control. This disruption may allow for increased connectivity between other brain networks, therefore facilitating more flexible and divergent thinking. By temporarily loosening the constraints of the DMN, psychedelics could promote novel associations, spontaneous insights, and creative problem-solving (Gattuso et al., 2023).

In addition, Mason et al. (2021) found that psilocybin induced time- and construct-related differentiation in creative thinking. Through an ultrahigh-field multimodal brain imaging approach, they revealed that changes in the connectivity within and between brain networks, particularly the DMN, predicted both acute and lasting effects on creativity. These findings highlight how psychedelics may influence brain networks responsible for creative thinking and cognitive flexibility, with potential applications in both creativity enhancement and mental health treatments.

Importance for Clinical Practice (and Recreational Purposes)

Psychedelics hold significant potential for clinical practice due to their ability to enhance flexible, divergent thinking. This cognitive flexibility is crucial not only for creativity but also for therapeutic outcomes, as it can help patients break free from emotional rigidity and repetitive negative thought patterns often associated with mental health conditions like anxiety and depression. 

By promoting more adaptive and open ways of thinking, psychedelics may enable patients to approach their problems with fresh perspectives, facilitating breakthroughs in therapy (Kuypers, 2018). These changes support emotional recovery, making psychedelics valuable tools in psychotherapy, particularly for individuals whose symptoms are resistant to traditional treatments.

Understanding the neurobiological effects of psychedelics provides additional insight into their therapeutic potential. Individuals at risk for depression, such as those with high levels of neuroticism, show increased DMN activity when processing negative self-referential information, which is linked to rumination (Chou et al., 2023). Psychedelic research suggests that these substances disrupt regular DMN connectivity, fostering more flexible and creative thinking. This ability to shift cognitive patterns may offer therapeutic potential by reducing rumination and promoting healthier thought processes, which could benefit clinical practice.

Comparison with Traditional Creative Methods 

Creativity significantly impacts mental health through various channels, including emotional regulation, cognitive flexibility, and social connectedness. Engaging in creative activities – visual arts, writing, music, and crafts – helps individuals manage and express their emotions more effectively, enhancing their emotional well-being. By providing a means to articulate complex feelings and thoughts, creative expression becomes a valuable tool for emotional balance and psychological resilience (Jean-Berluche, 2024).

In comparison, psychedelics offer a quicker, more intense boost in creativity by disrupting rigid thought patterns and increasing cognitive flexibility. While traditional creative exercises provide steady, long-term benefits, psychedelics can lead to immediate breakthroughs. However, they also carry risks, such as potential psychological distress, and require a controlled setting. 

Traditional creative methods serve as a safer, more gradual approach to enhancing creativity and mental health, allowing individuals to cultivate their emotional balance over time without the associated risks of psychedelic use. However, psychedelic therapy has contrarily been shown to be effective in treating treatment-resistant disorders. Integrating both approaches may provide a comprehensive framework for fostering creativity and supporting mental health, leveraging the strengths of each.

The Impact of Set and Setting

The concept of set (an individual’s mental state) and setting (the environment) plays a critical role in shaping the therapeutic effects of psychedelics. According to Golden et al. (2022), the setting in which a psychedelic experience occurs can significantly influence the intensity and quality of the experience. However, while there is a general understanding that setting matters, the specific mechanisms through which different environments influence various individuals remain unclear.

Hartogsohn (2017) highlights that an individual’s mental state (set) prior to taking psychedelics is equally important, as it impacts emotional and cognitive outcomes. A positive and supportive psychological environment can enhance creativity during psychedelic experiences, which then leads to innovative thinking and problem-solving. Although further research is needed to link set and setting directly to creativity outcomes, these factors likely play a role.

In a study exploring the relationship between psychedelics and creative problem-solving (Sweat et al., 2016), the occurrence of mystical experiences seemed to significantly increase participants’ performance on a functional fixedness task – the Duncker’s Candle Problem. Since mystical experiences have previously been shown to be affected by differing sets and settings, it is reasonable to assume that they could also indirectly enhance creativity. 

MacLean et al. (2011) further found that the trait of openness, which is related to creativity, was enhanced for up to 18 months following a psychedelic experience in participants who had a mystical experience. However, more research is needed to fully understand the effect of set or mystical experiences on creativity in psychedelic contexts.

Translating Scientific Findings to Reality

Creativity and psychedelic research bring the challenge of applying scientific findings to such a profoundly subjective experience as creativity. While studies may provide insight into how psychedelics impact brain function and personality traits related to creativity, these findings often struggle to capture the personal and highly individualised nature of creativity itself. 

In a recent interview on creativity and psychedelic research (Basedow, 2022), the researchers discussed experimental research on deliberate and spontaneous creativity mentioned above (Mason et al., 2021). This research revealed that – surprisingly – participants performed worse on creativity tasks while under the influence of psilocybin, despite reporting increased feelings of creativity. However, at follow-up, which was seven days after the conducted experiment, those who reported more subjective creativity on the testing day also had more new ideas on the AUT compared to the placebo group.

Each person’s perception of how psychedelics affect their creative process can vary significantly, making it difficult for scientific measurements to reflect the nuanced and subjective reality of these experiences fully. Many people share their psychedelic experiences online through social media, offering personal perspectives that often go beyond scientific data.

Notable Figures and Psychedelic Use

The diversity of individuals who attribute their success to psychedelics is remarkable. A Nobel Prize winner, Kary Mullis, credits his discovery of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to his experiences with LSD (Liester, 2024; Mullis, 1998). Second-hand stories about LSD playing a role in the discovery of DNA are likely not authentic.

Tech innovator Steve Jobs took LSD when he was young to spark his creativity, later describing it as one of the most important things he did in his life (Browder, 2018). Numerous musicians, actors, comedians, artists, and authors also acknowledge utilising psychedelics to enhance their creative processes.

Real-World Applications and Perspectives

Various sources provide insights into how psychedelic research on creativity translates to reality. 

A Ceros Inspire article (Dart, 2023) highlights how many creatives are embracing microdosing as a tool to boost their creative process. Designers, artists, and other professionals report that microdosing helps them overcome creative blocks, enhances their focus, and allows them to approach their work from fresh perspectives. A nail artist claims it has a calming effect that leads to more fluid design creation, while others find it expands their imagination and increases their empathy towards their audience.

In a podcast episode featuring Laura Dawn (#62 – Laura Dawn on Microdosing for Creativity, Overcoming the “I’m Not Creative” Label, and Psychedelics Safe Use, 2022), a microdosing mentor, microdosing is described as a powerful tool for enhancing creative flow and problem-solving abilities. She shares how psychedelics and sacred plant medicines, when used mindfully, can help individuals manifest their dreams and integrate new perspectives into their daily lives, potentially unlocking greater creative potential.

An article in The Conversation (Petranker & Anderson, 2019) by two psychedelic researchers highlights the personal experiences of microdosers and describes the subjective reports of individuals. They perceive benefits like improved mood and creativity in their daily lives, despite the potential challenges they face, such as illegality and physiological discomfort. 

Similarly, an article in Artsy (Santiago Cortes, 2018) highlights personal experiences of artists using psychedelics to enhance creativity. For example, Maya Hayuk recalls her first LSD experience, which revealed vibrant colours and layers of infinity, inspiring her to explore new artistic mediums. Similarly, sculptor Reuven Israel describes how a shamanic journey opened his perception to the idea of constant geometric flux, profoundly transforming his artistic approach.

Directions for Future Research

Future research should focus on developing and implementing standardised, reliable test batteries to address the mixed results in short-term and long-term psychedelic effects on creativity. These should include a combination of well-validated creativity measures such as the TTCT, AUT, and PCT. Longitudinal studies using these consistent measures could help track changes in creativity over time, from acute effects to long-term impacts, providing a clearer picture of how psychedelics influence creative thinking across different timeframes.

More experimental research, particularly randomised controlled trials, is crucial to establish causal relationships between psychedelic use and creativity. These studies should include larger sample sizes and diverse populations to improve generalizability. Additionally, researchers should consider using a variety of psychedelic substances and dosages to compare their effects on different aspects of creativity, such as divergent thinking, convergent thinking, and insight problem-solving.

Future studies should investigate how set and setting influence creativity outcomes in psychedelic experiences. This could involve priming participants with different mindsets (e.g., focusing on problem-solving vs. open exploration) before administration and comparing creativity outcomes. Similarly, researchers could compare creativity results from psychedelic experiences in different environments, such as retreat settings versus laboratory conditions, to understand how the physical and social context impacts creative thinking.

Exploring the relationship between mystical experiences (ME) and creativity during psychedelic sessions could provide valuable insights. Researchers could design studies that assess the intensity of ME using validated scales (e.g., the Mystical Experience Questionnaire) and correlate these with various creativity measures. This approach could help identify whether certain qualities of mystical experiences, such as ego dissolution or a sense of unity, are particularly conducive to enhancing creative thinking.

Investigating the neurobiological mechanisms underlying psychedelic-induced creativity is another important direction for future research. Studies combining creativity tasks with neuroimaging techniques (e.g., fMRI, EEG) during psychedelic experiences could shed light on how these substances alter brain connectivity and activity in regions associated with creative thinking. This could help explain the cognitive processes behind enhanced creativity and inform more targeted approaches to creativity enhancement.

Bridging Scientific Research and Subjective Experiences

The gap between scientific research and perceived creativity remains a significant challenge. The growing body of subjective reports on microdosing, particularly its perceived impact on creativity, offers valuable insights for psychedelic research. These personal accounts can guide researchers in identifying potential areas of interest, such as specific cognitive benefits, mood enhancement, or creative breakthroughs. By systematically analysing these subjective experiences, researchers can develop hypotheses and design controlled studies to investigate the mechanisms behind these effects, potentially bridging the gap between anecdotal evidence and scientific validation.

Final Thoughts

Psychedelics are often celebrated for their potential to enhance creativity, but it’s important to recognize the variability in individual responses. As Aldous Huxley remarked in a 1960 interview for The Paris Review:

“I don’t think there is any generalization one can make on this. Experience has shown that there’s an enormous variation in the way people respond to lysergic acid. Some people probably could get direct aesthetic inspiration for painting or poetry out of it. Others I don’t think could. For most people it’s an extremely significant experience, and I suppose in an indirect way it could help the creative process. But I don’t think one can sit down and say, ‘I want to write a magnificent poem, and so I’m going to take lysergic acid [diethylamide].’ I don’t think it’s by any means certain that you would get the result you wanted — you might get almost any result.”

This insight underscores the unpredictability of psychedelics in fostering creativity. While some individuals report transformative creative breakthroughs, others experience outcomes unrelated to their initial intentions. Huxley’s cautionary perspective also highlights the indirect nature of these substances’ influence—creativity is often a byproduct of the broader cognitive and emotional shifts they catalyze rather than a direct consequence of their use.

In this light, psychedelics might best be viewed not as tools for instant artistic brilliance but as catalysts for exploration, reflection, and flexibility. Their effects are deeply entwined with an individual’s mindset, personality, and environment, reaffirming the importance of “set and setting” in shaping creative outcomes.